Potatoes
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Potatoes
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The Potato Eaters For years the story was told that Sir Francis Drake, the predatory privateer honored by the British Crown, scoured the Atlantic looking for ships carrying gold and silver. When the rich cargo of a Spanish ship slipped by him he returned without the expected loot and stopped at an Irish port to unload potatoes taken as provisions for his crew. Other stories credit Sir Walter Raleigh, but whoever brought potatoes to Ireland performed a valiant act because it saved millions of Irish men, women and children from starvation. Fifteenth century religious wars had created an impasse that resulted in restrictions on grain imports coming from England and the European mainland. Reeling from famine, Ireland was eager to embrace a new food that could flourish on Ireland's boggy soil. Millions more were saved by the humble potato during the years when basic European sustenance depended on domesticated grains and grasses, and famine and plague were frequent specters. A short growing season in Northern Europe caused periodic crop failures which were followed by terrible times of famine and disease. Rye and oats were better able to survive the elements than wheat, but these grasses do not contain gluten, the leavening constituent of wheat, and they could not sustain a food economy based on bread. Despite years of war, famine and misery, Europe was poised for change and industrial expansion, but needed an adequate food supply to fuel a new era. The Europeans did not turn to the potato for sustenance. It was disdained as food suitable only for naked savages, and the ugly tuber was rumored to cause leprosy. The potato is a member of the family that includes deadly nightshade, so there was some reason for caution. Wheat-growing countries like Spain, Italy and France had seen a few potatoes planted in garden plots around monasteries as a novelty, mainly for cattle feed, but it was not used not as a food staple. By 1570 food shortages were so severe that government officials, fearing riots and revolt, searched for new food resources. Both Frederick the Great of Germany and Catherine of Russia urged peasants to plant potatoes. News of the potato's success in Ireland encouraged monarchs to consider the potato an adequate source of starch for the common people. German and Russian laws were passed that forced peasants to plant the crop, but food habits are hard to change and hungry people still resisted the potato. The king of France finally decided on a strategy for making potatoes acceptable. Wearing a potato flower in his coat lapel, with his wife, Marie Antoinette, wearing a necklace of potato flowers, he arranged for an elaborate meal at court. With great fanfare and public display, the king and queen ate and seemingly relished boiled potatoes. The courtiers reluctantly followed his lead. People waited anxiously to see what would happen, and when nothing untoward developed for the king, the queen or his courtiers, people began to embrace the potato. In Russia, Poland, Germany, Scandinavia and the Benelux countries it became the food staple and replaced scarce wheat products. The potato took on a national identity, complete with a suitable name, for each country's cuisine. The Spanish, Portuguese and Italian names remain similar to the native American's batata. The Germans and Danes call it kartoffel, the Dutch call it aardappel, in Norway it is potet, and in Sweden it is called potatis. The Serb-Croats call it krompir and the French have pomme de terre. The Russian diminutive plural for potatoes is an affectionate kartoshki, and vodka (which is the Russian diminutive for water, voda) is distilled from the cheapest source of available starch which is often the potato (especially in Poland). Many countries stake a claim to the potato, and ethnic recipes reflect the character and taste of people around the world. Few remember that the plant is a gift from America. Van Gogh in his famous painting "The Potato Eaters" captured the earthy goodness of the tuber and the honest faces of the workers. Those European faces are different from those of the farmers who labored on the peaks of Andes mountains 4000 years ago to domesticate the potato. The people who followed them, notably the Incas, built terraces, digging by hand, inserting ditches for drainage and creating a huge laboratory for domesticating, cultivating and breeding a most admirable food, one that ultimately prospered in every soil and climate. Insert drawing based on Pilgramsreuth statue here in place of Henri Arnaud. Many towns in Europe have heroes who are remembered for their fight against starvation, heroes who brought the lowly potato to those who had no other source of food. Often they are honored with statues, such as the one shown here commemorating the introduction of the potato to Pilgramsreuth by Hans Rogler in 1647. The common potato, Solanum tuberosum, is not a root crop; it is the swollen tip of an underground stem, a tuber that stores starch in order to support the leafy plant above the soil. If the plant remained undisturbed it would eventually bear a small green fruit, similar to an unripe tomato, but the fruit as well as the eye and seed contain solanin, a toxin which make them inedible. Green patches on potatoes usually contain some solanin and indicate that the potato has been exposed to direct sunlight. The green patch should be removed, or, better still, the potato should be discarded. The solanin is eliminated in cooking, but it may nevertheless give the potato a bitter taste. As a source of starch and general nutrition the potato is unparalleled and has many advantages over grains. It is easily propagated, as each eye produces an entire plant. It is easy to sow; it requires few tools and thrives in climates and fields unsuited to grain production. When harvested it is ready to eat and needs no threshing, winnowing, chaffing or grinding. The plant yields more energy per acre than any of the cereal grasses. It is rich in carbohydrates and protein, and it is an excellent source of potassium and vitamin C. An added attraction is that when the tax collector comes in the fall to take the tithe or assessment out of the grain bins, the potato may still be safely buried in the ground! The potato is a major food grown in 80 countries. About 35 billion pounds of potatoes are grown each year in the United States. This enormous food resource is big business, but in its place of origin it is still "small potatoes", small crops grown in small plots by the people who are rich in tradition but very poor in the world's goods.
On the road to Peruvian and Ecuadorian fairs in Otavalo, Ambato, Riobama and other Andean markets one sees barefoot Indians, wearing the style of hats assigned to them by the Spanish conquistadores, carrying small sacks of potatoes. These descendants of proud Andean farmers trudge over miles of mountain roads to bring to market potatoes in shades of white, golden yellow, blue, purple and red. They grow their varied crops on tiny plots of land at altitudes where corn and beans would not prosper. They find a place on the fairground near the women who sell hats known as "Panamas" woven from the cut leaves of the pandanus tree. The man who prescribes ancient herbal medicines has his display near the woman who concocts love potions. The potato-growers are their friends, and they chatter in Quechia, their ancient language, while they spread their potatoes, one by one onto the dusty ground. They sort them according to color, shape and texture. The seeds for these varieties have passed from generation to generation and the potato farmers know their qualities, which were identified long ago by their Andean forefathers, notably the Incas. The Inca empire at the height of its power covered more than 2000 miles of rugged desert coast and mountainous terrain. In that inhospitable environment a huge population survived, prospered, and built an advanced civilization. Corn was their most essential crop and some varieties of corn survived at altitudes of up to 8000 feet. At still higher altitudes, on man-made terraces encircling the mountains, they grew potatoes, the plots approaching the top of the Andean peaks. The potato growers watched the plants grow and identified their specific traits to see how they adapted to altitude, soil conditions, cold, and hours of sunshine. They cross-bred them to improve the stock and then planted the most productive cultivars in climates and soils best suited to their attributes. They learned how to store them and in icy regions they learned how to freeze-dry them to provide adequate food for the coldest months. Freshly harvested mature potatoes, with tougher textures, were trampled by hundreds of feet until all the moisture had been extracted and the pulp was completely dry. The dried pulp was stored in icy caves and reconstituted with melted snow during the winter to provide year-round nourishment. Other varieties were planted in areas ideally suited to specific soil and climatic conditions. Diversity had more than esthetic appeal, it was essential to obtaining the finest crops. In Peru the computers of El Centro Internacional de las Papas (CIP), a seed bank, contain a vast amount of data on hundreds of different potato cultivars. They preserve a reservoir of genetic plant material and keep a record of which varieties are susceptible to specific crop pests and which are most resistant to a variety of blights and diseases. In the United States we concentrate on crops that are most advantageous economically. Since more than 60% of the potato harvest goes into preprocessed potato chips and fries, the bland varieties best suited for such processing are given the greatest acreage. Varieties not in demand may be lost forever, but the danger in a monoculture, where there is little diversity, is that we may be losing a race that would be resistant to a new disease infestation. Should a widespread potato blight develop we may have to turn to the seed bank in Peru to look for resistant varieties. But seed banks are not totally reassuring. Acts of terror, natural disasters and technological failures may disrupt computerized collections. In Russia, a slashed budget now endangers the precious contents of the Vavilov Institute, in St. Petersburg. The Vavilov library stores the cultivated and wild seeds of potatoes, grains, corn, beans, fodder, fruits and vegetables collected on five continents. This is an international treasure house. The Andean farmers on their small plots have kept a heritage of precious seed that are a world treasure, but they too may fall prey to advancing industrialization and the last vestiges of once-great civilizations will vanish. The American colonists considered the potato an oddity. In the New World they retained many of their Old World prejudices and by 1719 the potato was just beginning to become a market staple. Then in the 19th century the Irish came fleeing from their famine-ridden land. The new immigrants relished potatoes and grew them in disease-free American soil. The "Irish" potato became a major New England food crop, and the entire area was markedly changed by the new demography and the vastly enlarged food resource. The story of the Irish potato famine is dramatic and revealing. Harsh restrictions imposed by the British Crown during the religious upheavals of the 15th century left the Irish people on the edge of starvation. Ireland's boggy soil produced little grain, and when the potato arrived in Ireland in mid 16th century, it was welcomed and became an immediate success. On a modest plot of land an Irish farmer could construct a "lazybed" ridged so that it prevented soil erosion. In a "lazybed" the crop could winter-over and provide food for a family for an entire year. By 1650 potatoes had become the staple food of Ireland. Ample nutrition fueled an unprecedented population explosion. The birth rate increased, infant mortality dropped, life spans lengthened. In less than a century the Irish population grew by 600%. But the land could no longer support so many people. Potato crops became vulnerable to a series of plant diseases which should have been warnings of impending disaster, but little was known or understood about the need for biodiversity or other aspects of plant physiology. Then came the blight and the famine of 1845-50 which killed a million people. More than a million more fled the country. It changed the demographic complexion of Ireland and changed the demographics and politics of the United States. The introduction of the potato into Eastern and Central Europe also changed the character and demographics of that part of the world. Suleiman the Magnificent had become Sultan in 1520 when the Ottoman Empire had already embarked on an aggressive assault on neighboring states. Under Suleiman the empire expanded into Africa, Asia Minor and Eastern Europe. Barbarossa, the relentless commander of the Turkish navy, ravaged ships along the northern coast of Africa, penetrated east to the Persian Gulf, and surged into the heart of Europe. The eastern Mediterranean became a Turkish sea, and the Turks patrolled the ports where the main trade in foods took place. Cattle and grains crossed the Atlantic to feed Spanish and Portuguese explorers. Return trips carried New World foods such as corn, beans and potatoes to Mediterranean ports. Many of these ships fell into the hands of the wheat-eating Turks who disdained the foods from the Americas. The ships sailed up the Danube with these stores of American foods and the Turks gave them to their starving subject peoples. Loot from Spanish and Portuguese ships was eagerly welcomed and given their ethnic identity. In modern-day Turkey, the Turks who originally scorned the potato now make it part of their daily diet. Stews rest on nests of mashed potatoes. Carrots, spinach and eggplant are puréed and combined with mashed potatoes. The purées are spread on ridged platters or plates to hold the gravies and sauces that are the perfect foil for the vegetables. Cubed, cold potatoes are combined with cucumbers and tomatoes to make delightful salads that characterize fresh Turkish flavor. Carrot and Potato Purée Trim and scrape carrots and cut into 1-inch pieces. Peel potatoes and cut them into 2-inch cubes. Place carrots, potato cubes and onion in saucepan and cover with cold water. Salt to taste. Bring to a boil and simmer for 20 minutes or until tender. Do not overcook. Drain vegetables and mash by hand or put through food mill or potato ricer. Return to clean saucepan. Add butter, sprinkle with pepper and blend well with wooden spatula. Place over low heat and add warm milk. Beat with wooden spoon, then add chives or cilantro. Beat again. Spread onto warm plates, making a rim to hold stew meat and gravy. Serve immediately. Serves 6.
Potatoes became such an important and integral part of the European scene that it was impossible for Europeans to believe that they had ever existed without them. As a young lad my father worked in a sawmill in Russia. In winter, when there were no fresh greens, he and the rest of the crew survived on a salad of cubed boiled potatoes, beets, parsnips, turnips, carrots and celery root marinated in oil and vinegar. Black radishes, herring and coarse black bread when available made it a banquet. He described such feasts with nostalgic sighs and shook his head in disbelief when told that potatoes were first cultivated by American Indians. He would argue "Potatoes are typically Russian, even vodka, the country's national tipple, is made from potatoes." Many Jews believe that the potato originated as part of their ancient heritage. Hannukah, the holiday that celebrates the victory of Judas Maccabeus and the freedom fighters who triumphed over the Greeks and Syrians in 165 B.C., is celebrated with a meal that has potato pancakes as a focal point of the ritual meal. The Maccabeans had never even dreamed of potatoes; the meal commemorates the single cruse of oil which was sufficient to light the encampment for just one night. The oil continued to burn for eight nights, and the branched menorah associated with the holiday allows for a new candle to be lit for each of eight nights. It is the oil, not the potato that is honored, but it would be hard to prevail on dedicated pancake eaters that potatoes were unknown to the Maccabeans. As a young girl I shredded the potatoes for the latkes and ate the pancakes with scraped knuckles. Now that potatoes can be shredded in a food processor they are one of my favorite foods. Blenders do not work as well as food processors because they turn potatoes into a purée rather than into the shreds that give the latke substance. Potato Latkes Place shredding disk in food processor, shred potatoes together with onion. Remove shredding disk and replace with metal blade. Add eggs, flour and seasoning, process until ingredients are blended. Remove mixture to bowl. Heat oil in a large frying pan, until hot but not smoking, drop tablespoonfuls of batter into pan, press down to flatten cakes, and fry on both sides until crispy and brown. Serve at once. Latkes are traditionally eaten with sour cream, but they are also very good with apple sauce. Makes 4 portions
Saving time and fuel is important to poor people. Peasants and factory workers boiled large quantities of potatoes, sufficient for a meal, and enough for plenty of leftovers. Pre-cooked potatoes are versatile. They can be fried, scalloped, creamed, and combined with vegetables in stir-fried dishes. The Chinese and Japanese, who were short of fuel, prepared food over small, fast-burning fires. Green vegetables stayed crisp and chewy; potatoes needed more time to become tender unless they were very thinly sliced. A half-minute head start in a stir-fry will make them soft, but partially cooked potatoes have more substance and add texture when cubed or thickly sliced. (Unpeeled cooked potatoes should be lightly brushed with fat or oil to prevent rapid evaporation and wrinkling.) Basic Stir Fry In a fry-pan or wok, heat 1 tablespoon of oil until hot, but not smoking. Peanut oil may be heated to 375 degrees, canola oil or other salad oils are safer at 350 degrees. Sauté a thinly sliced onion until soft, add peeled, sliced or cubed potatoes, turn and stir for about 30 seconds. Add sugar peas, snow peas, cauliflower, broccoli, sprinkle with salt and paprika, and stir for three minutes until vegetables are heated through but still crisp. To this basic recipe add leftover bits of meat or chicken for an elegant meal. Fresh chives, parsley or grated carrots add vitamins as well as pleasing flavor. Pre-cooked or partially cooked potatoes have become adapted to many styles that are often associated with distinct ethnic origin. Herbed Scalloped Potatoes - Typically Scandinavian Scrub potatoes and cook until fork tender. Remove from heat. Melt butter in small saucepan, stir in flour. Cook for 2 minutes. Remove from heat and stir in stock, rosemary, thyme and pepper. Return to heat and continue cooking until mixture thickens. Remove from heat and stir in yogurt. Halve or slice potatoes (use new potatoes unpeeled - the skins contain 20% of their nutritive value). Layer them in a baking dish, pour sauce over potatoes, sprinkle with cheese, heat in 350 degree oven until cheese melts, about 5 minutes. Serves 6.
Gnocchi - delicious little Italian dumplings Boil unpeeled potatoes until tender. Drain and peel. Mash potatoes with potato masher, fork or ricer. Cool to room temperature. Gradually add flour to potatoes, mixing with wooden spoon until it makes a dough stiff enough to knead. If more flour is needed add a little at a time. Add salt and roll dough into 3/4 inch diameter sausage. Slice into 1-1/2 inch long pieces. In a large pot bring salted water to a boil and cook a few pieces of gnocchi at a time (do not crowd). As gnocchi rise to the top, remove them with a slotted spoon and keep warm while the remaining ones cook.
German Potato Salad Slice potatoes while still warm. Mix celery, sugar, salt and mustard, add mayonnaise, sour cream and cucumbers. Pour and toss just enough to cover potatoes. This salad is best eaten warm. Makes 4 servings.
Potato Cheese Casserole - Serves 6 Whip the cheeses, butter and milk together by hand or in a food processor. Add potatoes and seasoning. Continue processing until the blend is fairly smooth. Spoon mixture into a buttered baking dish. Sprinkle with paprika or chopped parsley. Bake in a 350 degree preheated oven for 30 minutes or until bubbly.
Potatoes with Green Peppers - a Hungarian favorite Heat oil over medium-high heat in large frying pan. To heated oil stir in and blend paprika. Add potatoes and green peppers. Sprinkle with salt. Turn potatoes in the pan for 3 or 4 minutes to coat and brown with paprika-oil, then add 3 tablespoons of water. Cover pan, reduce heat and cook for about 10 minutes or until peppers are tender-crisp. To combine the potatoes with peas, first brown the potatoes then add peas. To combine with cauliflower or broccoli, add a minced clove of garlic to the oil as it is heating with the paprika to add flavor, but do not let the garlic burn, as it turns bitter when exposed to intense heat.
Baked sliced potatoes If the potatoes are fresh, just clean and slice crosswise. Older potatoes may need to be peeled. Drop slices into cold water to keep from discoloring. Drain and pat dry. Dip slices into melted butter and place in an oven-proof dish in overlapping layers. There should be no more than three layers. Place in a pre-heated 450 degree oven for ten minutes. Reduce heat to 325 degrees and bake for approximately 40 minutes until tender and brown. Serve in the baking dish or turn over onto a platter.
If you are accustomed to dressing your baked potatoes with butter and sour cream you might want to try this low-fat version of a famous delicacy. Low-Fat Crème Fraiche Blend together and whisk for a few minutes to incorporate as much air as possible. When the mixture is light and fluffy, spoon into small cups or jars. Cover with a kitchen towel to absorb condensation. Let stand in a warm room, or on the low temperature setting of a hot plate or yogurt maker. Any device that sustains a temperature of between 75 and 80 degrees will gradually thicken the mixture and create crème fraiche. Use it on desserts, or fruits, as well as baked potatoes. It has a sweet, nutty flavor.
Try a pesto sauce for tremendous flavor when added to boiled or baked potatoes. If fresh basil leaves are not available try parsley. Low Fat Pesto Sauce In food processor or blender purée basil or parsley with garlic and salt. Add oil slowly and remove to a bowl. Sprinkle with Parmesan cheese, or freeze the sauce and add cheese when ready to use.
From India comes a recipe that combines potatoes, tomatoes, chilies and paprika - all these ingredients originated with the New World paleo-Indians, as a gift to the world. Dumbak In a heavy-bottomed pan, heat oil over medium high heat, then stir-fry the chilies, coriander, cumin seeds and black pepper for about one minute to release their aromatic oils. Arrange potato slices in a layer, sprinkle with paprika and salt, cover with sliced onions and tomatoes, and make another layer of potatoes, onions and tomatoes sprinkled with paprika. This is a very spicy dish if you eat the chilies. For a milder flavor cut down on the chilies. Serves 6.
How to Buy Potatoes Potatoes are retailed as Maine, Long Island, California, Idaho, etc. but they do not necessarily come from the designated states. These designations indicate the type of potato rather than the place from which it comes. In early spring tiny, newly harvested potatoes appear in the markets and are sometimes labeled "baby potatoes." They are a treat with a fresh taste and a fragrance that spells the beginning of a new season. They should be treated with the same tenderness given to freshly-picked corn or peas. Eaten with their tender skins, they contain a healthful bonus because the skin contains 20% of the nutrients. Steamed or roasted with herbs they are fork-tender in about ten minutes. All potatoes should be cooked until just fork-tender to be at their flaky best. Potatoes reach what is called the "gelatinization point" at about 150 degrees, after that they become soggy. In summer the young potatoes are larger, waxier, and still have a low starch content, with a firm texture and thin skin. They are ideal for salads. Steam them for about 20 minutes or boil them in a cup of water over medium heat in a tightly covered pot. Drain, remove cover, shake over low heat to evaporate excess water, then place a clean towel over the potatoes and cover loosely with the pot cover. Turn off the heat and let the towel absorb condensation so that the potatoes stay crisp and firm. Potatoes that stay in the ground longer are starchier and have a mealier texture. The Idahos and Russets are ideal for frying and baking. In a microwave oven these potatoes become tender in just a few minutes, depending on the power of the oven. Baked at 400 degrees in a conventional oven, for about 45 to 60 minutes, potatoes become tender and flaky and the skins are very crisp. They are so good that they need little butter or sour cream to enhance their flavor, and the skins can become the vehicle for an interesting entrée. From a freshly-baked potato scoop the tender contents from the skin, leaving about 1/4 inch of potato lining. Use the potato contents or reserve them for potato filling. Return the baked skin to the oven and bake at a crisp 500 degrees for about five minutes, then, when cool, fill the cavity with potato, salsa and cheese, or left-over fish or bulgur salad. The possibilities are endless. The skin is like a crust that can be treated like pizza or fajita. The potato that saved millions of people from starvation played an important role in stimulating technology and industrial growth. This bit of history, reduced to a nutshell, relates to the small mill towns that bordered the rivers and streams that supplied water power for grinding and milling grains. When farmers shifted to planting potatoes, grain harvests were markedly reduced and some of the mills stood idle. Human ingenuity, unlike nature, did allow for a vacuum. Cotton from the New World proved to be superior to the short-fibered plants of the continent and the idle mills found it profitable to turn to the manufacture of cotton cloth. People released from subsistence agriculture and no longer needed on the farm flocked to the cities and became workers in the mills. The invention of the cotton gin and expansion of sheep-herding turned small enterprises and cottage industries into world-wide manufacturing centers that created capital and trade in England, Germany, Austria and Holland. Wealth generated by industry financed the expansion of ideas and nourished the arts and music on what became a new world stage. It is incredible to think that this renaissance started in the humble potato fields of the Peruvian Andes!
Source: http://www.ferdinando.org.uk/cotton_trades.htm |
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All material on this site is copyright 2003-2005 by Vicki Oppenheimer and Milpah Press. For information on the availability of the printed version of The Taste Makers, please write to us. This page was last updated on 24-Nov-2005. |
